Topaz by Lacey Dreyer

Garnet by Susan Kelley

Kyanite by Susan Kelley

The Wonderful World of Mica by Dustin Ross

The Wonderful World of Talc by Dustin Ross

Beryl by Lacey Dreyer

Boegel, Hellmuth. The Studio Handbook of Minerals. 2nd edition, New York: Viking Press, 1972. Originally Zurich: Droemersche Verlagsanstalt, 1968.

Quartz has been used for decorative purposes for many years. Pliny described quartz crystals in detail, and noticed that it was used in carvings in ancient Rome. In the 1500s and 1600s, decorative vases were carved from quartz. Amethysts are used in rings, and rose quartz has been used in necklaces.

Quartz has many more industrial uses. Sand, very small pieces of quartz, is a major component of glass. The ingredients are heated until melted, and shaped before they are able to reform into crystals. It is used as an abrasive in grinding and sandblasting, and cutting softer stones. Quartz also has many electronic uses, such as in radios, pressure gauges, computers, and fiber optic cables. A source of the ingredients for synthetic quartz is sometimes real quartz, usually reshaped to form more perfect crystals (Arkansas).

Platinum is usually a white, grey or steel color and is shinny. It has a hardness of 4-4.5 on Mohs Scale of Hardness. The crystal system is isometric, typically found in distorted cubes. Platinum is found in the following shapes: grains, lumps or nuggets. Platinum is not found by itself, it is more often than not found in placer deposits (Chesterman, 1979).

The history of platinum dates back as far as 700 B.C. where the ancient people noticed the little grey pebbles. The pebbles were known as platina del Pinto, which means granules of silver material. The pebbles came from the Pinto River in the San Juan River Valley in Colombia (Gold and Silver Mines, 2004).

Mining of platinum is a very long and complex process. To mine platinum requires a complex aqueous chemical process in order to isolate and identify that it is platinum. These techniques were not available in the ancient times, but needed techniques came about in the 19th century. That is why the platinum group has lagged behind silver and gold by thousands of years for use (Gold and Silver Mines, 2004). The major mining districts for platinum are in South Africa and Canada.

Platinum has many different applications and uses. First is auto catalyst, which is the cat converter in the car. It helps control pollution out of the car. Platinum can also be used as a catalyst for chemical, fuel cells and petroleum. Platinum is also found in electronics such as computers. Platinum can also be an investment such as coins and bars. Other applications and uses would include dental, glass, jewelry, spark plugs and pollution control (UNCTAD, 2004).

Chesterman, Charles. National audubon society field guide to north American rock and minerals. Chanticleer Press, Inc. New York. 1979.

It has a hardness of 2.5 - 3 and a high specific gravity of 10.1 - 10.5. No cleavage is present and its color and streak are silver-white. It is opaque with a metallic luster and hackly fracture. Silver's crystal system is isometric with 4/m bar 3 2/m. Cubic or octahedral crystals occur, but are very rare. It usually occurs dendritic, wiry, massive, as grains and scales, and as groups of tiny crystals. Silver is not radioactive, but is ductile and malleable. Silver is a very resistant mineral. It does not dissolve in most solutions, and won't react to oxygen or water. Its weak point is its reaction to sulfur and sulfides, which cause it to tarnish black, brown to gray, and dark yellow. It is the best conductor of electricity.

Most silver is extracted from silver ores, but considerable amounts are mined from native silver. It is frequently mixed with gold; and sometimes with mercury, arsenic, and antimony. Silver occurs in primary hydrothermal veins, secondary enrichment, and as alluvial nuggets. According to Chesterman (1995), notable collecting localities are mines on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan; Bisbee, Cochise County, Arizona; and Creede County, Colorado (p. 347-348). Sheets and masses of silver, with many of notable size that is inches across, have been collected from the veins at Cobalt, Ontario, while silver in a wire habit, at Batopilas, Chihuahua, Mexico (p 347-348). Friedman says “some of the finest silver has come from Kongsberg, Norway, where beautiful crystals and wiry masses occur with calcite and silver sulfides” (Friedman 2000).

Silver is used as jewelry, ornaments, circuits, electrical apparatuses and coins. It is also used for medicinal purposes, particularly in dentistry, for bactericides, and for antiseptics. In the past, it had been used as the reflective surface for mirrors. Silver is also used in the photography industry, which takes advantage of silver's reactivity to light. With the invention of digital cameras, this use has decreased.

Sterling silver is .925 fine with the rest of the mixture usually copper. Coin silver is 90% silver and 10% copper. The silver market offers investors a variety of products. Pre-1965 U.S. 90% coins serve both as an investment medium and are permanent wealth as opposed to paper wealth. Weights of silver coins follow:

* Silver dollars contain 0.77344 Troy oz. silver content
* Half dollars contain 0.36169 Troy oz silver content
* Quarters contain 0.18084 Troy oz silver content
* Dimes contain 0.0723 Troy oz silver content

You can calculate the value of each coin by multiplying the silver content by the current spot price of silver, which is $6.68 (Bullion, 1999 - 2004).

Chesterman, C.W. (1995). The Audubon Society field guide to North American rocks and minerals. NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

Gold has been well known, and enthusiastically hunted, throughout history. Ancient Egypt believed gold was the flesh of the gods. The story of Midas also shows an early view of gold as highly valued and worthy of kings. The European explorations of North and South America in the 1500s and 1600s were in some part inspired by tales of El Dorado, a city where every building and street was made of gold. Many countries have used or currently use gold as their currency’s standard.

Today, gold is a highly valuable mineral, at the time of writing worth $419.60 (World Gold Council). Its high conductivity, reflectivity, ductility, malleability, and resistance to corrosion make it highly useful in industry. Gold was used as a radiation shield during the Apollo missions, and as a heat shield on space shuttles. It is often used in electronics to plate contacts, to help dissipate heat, and because of its resistance to corrosion can be used in a large variety of environments. Its malleability and resistance to corrosion make it good to use in dental work, though because of its low hardness it is usually used combined with silver, platinum, or copper. Gold is highly valued in decoration, used for plating in jewelry, construction, and many other products.

Boegel, Hellmuth. The Studio Handbook of Minerals. Second Edition. London: Thames and Hudson, 1971.

Copper was first discovered in the Middle East thousands of year ago. It was first intended to be used in the making of fine jewelry (http://www.azcu.org). It was later named after the Greek Kyprios, the island of Cyprus, where it was first mined (Chesterman & Lowe, 1995). Cooper soon evolved to be used as not only jewelry but also as cooking dishes, mirrors and even as statues (http://www.azcu.org). In fact, one of the most well-known statues in the United States, the Statue of Liberty (or “Liberty Enlightening the World” as it is originally titled) contains 179,200 pounds of copper (http://www.endex.com). Today, copper still makes itself valuable by being used by a wide variety of products.

Native copper is the most natural form of copper, which today is very rare. Because other copper minerals are much more economic to use, this native copper has not made its name as being a practical ore. Native copper can be found all over the world in places like Russia, Australia, and Germany, as well as in the United States in states such as Arizona and Michigan (http://mineral.galleries.com). In earlier times it was used by early civilizations to make weapons for hunting and self-defense; however, it was later replaced by iron because of iron's durability. Today, there are over 400 alloys in which copper is the basic metal. For example, copper can be alloyed with tin to become bronze or combined with zinc to become brass (http://www.azcu.org); both of which are widely used in present times.

Silver holds the best record for the ability to conduct electricity; however, copper comes in second and is even cheaper and more prevalent than silver which makes it widely used for conducting electricity (http://www.azcu.org). Subsequently, copper is used in four major markets besides electrical and electronic products: construction, transportation equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, and general consumer products (http://www.azcu.org).

Construction uses up 2,950,000,000 pounds of copper each year (or forty percent of copper used in the United States). Its main purposes in this context are for plumbing and electrical wiring. In fact, the average American home will use an average of 400 pounds of copper for its construction. In addition, an individual today will use about 1,750 pounds of copper in his or her lifetime in products, transportation, electricity and housing.

Transportation accounts for thirteen percent of copper used in a year. It is used in cars, trains, and even submarines (http://www.azcu.org.). Copper is even used to make jet planes and Space Shuttles (http://www.azcu.org).

Industrial machinery and equipment account for twelve percent of total copper use. Copper is used to make almost everything that we enjoy as humans such as clothes and food (http://www.azcu.org).

General consumer products hold the last market for copper with over 745,000,000 pounds, or ten percent of total copper use (http://www.azcu.org). We really do take for granted all that copper does in this category. Copper is in many items we use everyday such as: pennies, alarm clocks, radios, doorknobs, coffeemakers, car keys, zippers, forks and spoons, wedding bands and even eyeglasses (http://www.asarco.com). Copper is everywhere!

Sulfur was first described by the ancients in the Bible's book of Genesis as brimstone (www.speclab.com). It is a mineral that possesses many interesting physical characteristics. It has a hardness of only two on the Mohs hardness scale. This makes the mineral very light and loosely packed. Therefore, sulfur has a conchoidal fracture; as well as a poor cleavage in only two directions. Sulfur is yellow in color and leaves a yellowish streak on the steak plate. However, sulfur can also show a reddish or greenish yellow color with impurities (http://.mineral.galleries.com). The simple yellowish color is what gives sulfur its unique ability to stand out among other minerals. The unmistakable deep yellowish color is not matched by any other mineral. The specific gravity of sulfur is only 2.0-2.1. This is considered well below average for specific gravity (Chesterman & Lowe, 1995). As for the shape of sulfur, there is not much to it. The crystal habits include mostly massive or powdery forms while the crystal system is orthorhombic having a 2/m 2/m 2/m crystal class. Sulfur possesses very poor heat conductivity which makes it very brittle when heat is applied to it. It is usually accompanied with other minerals like calcite, gypsum, halite and celestite (Schumann, 1992).

As a kid I remember visiting my aunt in Houston and driving down the road to Galveston, Texas for some sight seeing. I strictly remember driving by the ship yards and seeing a very disturbing odor. Come to find out, the odor was coming from outside the car and not in the car. We happened to be driving downwind of a sulfur stock pile yard. My aunt just told me that it was what sulfur smells like. In doing the paper, I found that she was right in one way but wrong in another. Yes, the smell was coming from the sulfur piles but sulfur alone does not produce the rotten egg smell. The sulfur smelled because it had a reaction to water, that is the odor occurs when sulfur mixes with water. This mix will produce a small amount of hydrogen sulfide gas, which we recognize as the rotten egg smell (www.speclab.com). Thus, being close to the Gulf of Mexico the sulfur piles were susceptible to rain water and humid air, and often smelled of rotten eggs.

You do not have to go far from the United States to find sulfur. It is most commonly found in salt domes along the Gulf coast of the U.S. This is why the United State's main stock piles of sulfur are along the Gulf coast. Sulfur is found in Michigan, Ohio, Texas, and Louisiana. Overseas sulfur is found in countries including Italy, Japan, Romania, Mexico, and the Commonwealth of Independent States. It is usually mined through the Frasch process (www.speclab.com), where hot water is pushed in the ground to melt the sulfur and then a liquid sludge is brought up to the surface. However, sulfur can also be mined through digging, screening, and shoveling.

Sulfur has many uses in our society today. The number one thing sulfur does for us is that it helps us start fires. A majority of all match stick heads contain sulfur. It is also found in many plastics, enamels, rubbers, and in fertilizers. Sulfur is one of the main components that make up gun powder. If you pick up some acne ointments and face cleaners, you can bet they probably have sulfur in them. It is placed in cattle feed and in many insecticides (www.speclab.com). Because sulfur has low electrical conductivity, it is used for insulating equipment. Sulfur is one of the primary elements that are used in constructing the incendiary-Bombs (also known as NAPOM bombs) for the U.S. Throughout time sulfur has demonstrated its usefulness in a plethora of ways. As our scientific technology vastly improves in the future, we can be assured that sulfur will always be a mineral in demand.

· Diamond is the hardest mineral known to man, Graphite is one of the softest.

· Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

· Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, Graphite is a very good lubricant.

· Diamond is usually transparent, Graphite is opaque.

· Diamond crystallizes in the isometric crystal system and graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system (AmethystGalleries, 1996).

All of the differences between diamond and graphite are the result of the difference in their respective structures. Graphite has a sheet like structure where the atoms all lie in a plane and are only weakly bonded to the graphite sheets above and below. Diamond has a framework structure where the carbon atoms are bonded to other carbon atoms in three dimensions as opposed to two in graphite. Graphite has perfect , one directional cleavage.

Graphite is dark gray to black and streaks black. It has a hardness of 1 – 2 and a specific gravity of 1.9 – 2.3. Graphite will smudge the hands and feel greasy. It has a brittle tenacity, but thin flakes can be slightly elastic. Its luster is greasy to sub-metallic. Flaky to sectile is its fracture. The minerals.net web site says other names for graphite are black lead, plumbago, pencil ore, and graffito (Friedman 2000).

Graphite results from the metamorphism of carbonaceous material in sedimentary rocks and is found with quartz and muscovite in schists of regional metamorphic rocks and in marble. Some graphite is found in igneous rocks and also as nodules inside of iron meteorites. Graphite is rather common, but fine crystals are rare. Chesterman notes that “fine crystals have been found in the marbles at the Sterling Hill Mine at Ogdensburg, Sussex Co., New Jersey; in schists in Clay Co., Alabama; and in massive veins near Ticonderoga, Essex Co., New York” (Chesterman, p. 356).

The name is derived from the Greek graphein, to write, in allusion to its use as a crayon. The lead in pencils is not lead, but graphite mixed with clay. Much of the mined graphite is used in pencils. Its main function, however, is as a lubricant. Other uses are for brushes in electrical motors, friction materials, and battery and fuel cells.

The diamond has many impressive physical characteristics. However, one physical property really stands out, this mineral's hardness, of course. Diamond possesses a perfect ten on the Mohs Hardness Scale. This is the top seat of the hardness scale (www.mineral.galleries.com). In fact, very few people realize that the diamond is really many, many times harder than the next hardest mineral, corundum or the ruby and sapphire, which is 9 on the scale (www.mineral.galleries.com). The color of the diamond is very variable when found in nature. It is usually a pale yellow, brown, or gray, but it can be found in blue, reddish pink, green, black, or simply colorless. Its rough luster is waxy, but when polished it takes on the highest luster of a transparent mineral, adamantine. Its transparency is transparent to translucent, but also opaque. The cleavage is perfect in four directions, although it can fracture conchoidally (Chesterman & Lowe, 1995). The thermal conductivity of the diamond is five times better than that of silver. Diamonds are the second best elements that conduct heat and electricity (www.state.ar.us). Specific gravity is at 3.5 and the melting point is high, at about 3,820 degrees Kelvin. Diamonds have a very high refraction and a low reactivity to chemicals like acids (Schumann, 1992).

The diamond is a mineral that is really composed of one simple element, carbon. The carbon elements are arranged in a polymorph form. Graphite is another mineral that is composed primarily of carbon. However, graphite's carbon atoms are not as tightly packed and as well sorted as they are in diamond. That is why graphite is very weak as compared to diamond.

When people think of diamond they mostly think of a sparkling gem that is worth a lot of money. In part they are right. Diamonds are at the top of the list for gems and jewelry. Even more so for individuals with April birthdays, because diamond is the birthstone for April. With its sparkling glow and fire in the light, one can see why it is highly valued in the jewelry industry. However, the gemstone industry is not the leader in diamond consumption. The gemstone industry only accounts for about 20% of total diamond use. The other 80% of diamond use goes to industrial purposes (www.mbendi.co.za). This is due to the fact that a majority of all diamonds found in the world are not of gem quality. Even if the diamonds were to have insufficient size or visible flaws, it would still be priceless to the industrial world.

Being the hardest mineral on Earth, diamond plays a major role in the world's industrial market. Diamonds are abrasives and primary used for shaping and cutting, including diamond cutting knifes, saw blades and sharpeners, which would cut glass, tile, rocks, minerals, and even other diamonds. Sharpening scissors, knives, axes, exacto blades, and fishing knives provide additional uses for diamond (www.eze-lap.com).

Diamonds are only located in a few countries of the world. Australia is the world's leading industrial diamond producer; while Russia, Botswana, and South America are leading gem diamond producers (www.mbendi.co.za). In North America, diamonds are found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Wyoming.

Diamonds are truly one of the world's most magnificent creations of nature. It is one of the only minerals that has a magnificent effect on people, appreciated for both it's gem and industrial uses. I can now see why they say a diamond is truly a best friend!

Chalcopyrite is also known as peacock ore because of it beautiful coloring. The color is due to tarnishing which will change the colors to brilliant iridescent hues. The word chalcopyrite comes from the Greek word chalkos which means copper and pyrites which means strike fire (Minerals-n-more).

Chalcopyrite is also a major ore of copper. The yield of chalcopyrite out of an ore of copper is very low. It is used for collector specimens and as a decorative stone (Minerals-n-more). It has also been used for healing and energy work. Some people believe that chalcopyrite has healing powers such as protection from illness. It also enhances knowledge and strengthens perception (Harton, 2002). The occurrence of chalcopyrite is widespread. The main sites of large chalcopyrite specimens are found in Pennsylvania (Chester County), Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arizona, and Utah in the US, as well as Mexico and Quebec, Canada (Chesterman, 1979).

Chesterman, Charles. National Audubon society field guide to North American rock and minerals. Chanticleer Press, Inc. New York. 1979.

Galena is also referred to as lead ore because it is a lead sulfide. If someone was to streak it on a white paper it would leave a mark just like a pencil would. Galena is the most significant lead mineral. Most galena deposits have been worked for there lead content (Mineral Information Institute).

Lead is used in many ways and it is found in different things. Lead is used in batteries, gasoline tanks, seals and bearings on a vehicle. It is also used in electrical and electronic applications. Lead is also used to protect human form X-ray and gamma radiation. The biggest use of lead would be in ammunition. During the Civil War the army mad bullets from lead that was derived from a galena mine located in New York (Mineral Information Institute). It is estimated that lead worldwide exceeds 1.5 billion tons. More than one million tons of lead is recovered from recycling.

Pyrite has a hardness of 6 – 6.5 and a specific gravity of 4.9 – 5.2. It is brittle, has a conchoidal fracture, and a metallic luster. No cleavage is present and it is opaque. According to the web mineral web site “pyrite is magnetic after heating” (Barthelmy, 2004).

Pyrite is commonly called Fools Gold because of its similarity in color, shape, and habit to gold. They can easily be distinguished by pyrite’s black streak and gold’s yellow streak. Also, gold is softer with a hardness of 2.5 – 3.

Pyrite was polished by the Native Americans and used as mirrors. The word pyrite comes from the Greek, pyrites lithos, stone which strikes fire, in reference to the sparking produced when iron is struck by a piece of pyrite.

The mineral galleries website tells us that although pyrite is common and contains a high percentage of iron, it has never been used as a significant source of iron. Pyrite is not as economical as the iron oxides hematite and magnetite. These ores form larger concentrations of more easily mined material. Pyrite would be a potential source of iron if these ores should become scarce (Amethyst Galleries, Inc., 1996). Pyrite has been mined for its sulfur content. During WWII, sulfur was in demand as a strategic chemical and North American sulfur mines were drying up. “A sulfide deposit near Ducktown, TN. was found to be able to mine pyrite and other sulfides and produce the needed sulfur as well as iron and other metals” (Amethyst Galleries, Inc. 1996).

Excellent collecting localities are numerous in North America. Among the most prominent are the American Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah; Park City, Utah; Gilman, Leadville and Rico, Colorado; Sparta, Illinois; and French Creek Mine in Chester Co. Pennsylvania (Chesterman, p.374 – 375).

Pyrite is used as an ornamental stone, as well as a popular stone for collectors. It is sometimes used as a gemstone by being faceted and polished for use as a side jewel in a ring, bracelet, or necklace. Pyrite is many times called marcasite in the gem trade. Marcasite is not suitable for gem use, because it powders and may disintegrate into a powder.

Sphalerite’s hardness is 3.5-4 on the Moh’s hardness scale and its chemical formula is ZnS. Although the streak is often a pale yellow, the streak of sphalerite can be quite misleading. Pure sphalerite streaks white, while impure specimens of sphalerite may streak red-brown (Schumann, 1992). Color varies with this mineral as well. It is often found as a brown-red and is colorless when pure; however, it can be found in green, blue, white, pale gray, yellow (Chesterman & Lowe, 1995). Specific gravity is 4.0, while it has perfect cleavage in six directions (Perkins, 2002). Other properties include conchoidal fracture and its tenacity is brittle (www.mineral.net). Sphalerite will produce a sulfuric rotten egg smell when rubbed hard or dissolved in hydrochloric acid. In addition, sphalerite has a unique electrical ability as a pyroelectric mineral. This means that the mineral will form a slight electrical charge when it is cooled or heated (www.mineral.galleries.com).

Twinning properties of sphalerite are unique as well. It can form a spinel twin, which happens when the tetrahedral crystals twist in the middle and three points will align straight (www.mineral.galleries.com). Sphalerite can be found along side many other minerals. It is most noted to be found along with galena, pyrite, fluorite, calcite, magnetite, and quartz (www.mindat.org). USA, Spain, Peru, Burma, and Mexico are places where sphalerite is most notably found (Chesterman & Lowe, 2002). However, many well-formed specimens are found in the tri-state area. Joplin, Missouri has been known as an area that these nicely formed minerals are found.

Industrial uses of sphalerite are very minimal. Sphalerite is simply the main ore of zinc. Since this mineral is a sulfide, it is often used in making metals like copper, lead, and silver. In a lot of cases, sphalerite is also the main ore of gallium, iridium, and cadmium (www.minerals.net). It can also pose as a filler mineral in the more precious ores such as copper. Moreover, when found in pure forms the mineral has a magnificent sparkle. This mineral has a great use for gemologists. It can be polished and made into a beautiful specimen. In clear form it can be a very valuable mineral. Sphalerite also shows its usefulness in jewelry business. With the high refractive index of 2.37-2.42, this mineral is sparkly and makes a nice addition for a jewelry collector.

Chesterman, C.W. & Lowe, K.E. (1995). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Rock and Minerals. NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

Perkins, D. (2002). Mineralogy (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Schumann, W. (1992). Minerals of the World. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.

Fluorite has a hardness of 4 and specific gravity between 3.0 and 3.2. It has perfect cleavage in four directions which forms an octahedron. Also, it has a conchoidal fracture. Fluorite is transparent to translucent; it is fluorescent and has a vitreous luster. Fluorite is located in the isometric crystal system and usually found in cubic or penetration twins (Chesterman, 1979). The single refractive index for fluorite ranges between 1.433 and 1.435.

Fluorite comes in many different colors such as deep purple, which is the most famous of the colors. Other colors include blue, green and yellow. Colorless fluorite is rare and is sought after by collectors. Brown, pink, black and reddish orange and in high demand and are hard to find (Amethyst Galleries, 1996). Fluorite can also have colors that are arranged in bands or zones or even be in multiple colors such as green and purple (Minerals-n-More).

The name fluorite is from the Latin word fluere which means it melts easily. The history of fluorite dates back as far as the Roman times. The Romans use to call fluorite Blue John or Derbyshire spar. They used it to make vases and other objects. Fluorite was first called fluorspar by miners and sometimes it is still called that (Minerals-n-More).

Fluorite is also Illinois’ state mineral. It has been mined there since the early 1800’s. This area was called the Illinois- Kentucky Fluorspar Mining District because of the fluorspar-rich region which extends from southeastern Illinois into parts of Kentucky (Reinertsen, 2003). The mining in this area is mostly underground as deep as 1,300 feet. There are also mines located at the surface. In 1942 Illinois became the leading producer in the United States for fluorite. Illinois produce more than fifty percent of the total United States fluorite. In December of 1995 the last mine had to close because it became unprofitable. Fluorite is no longer mined anywhere in the United States (Reinertsen, 2003).

Fluorite is a vital mineral to the nation’s economy because of all the uses associated with it. Fluorite is used in almost anything possible. It is used in manufacturing glass, ceramics, cement and other chemical compounds. NASA uses it for rocket fuel. It is also used to refine fuel for the nuclear reactors in the United States. Fluorite is used in everyday things that humans use such as toothpaste, optical lenses and concrete hardeners. It is also used in plastics, refrigerants, nonstick coatings, lubricants, stain repellents, dyes, herbicides, medicines and anesthetics.

Halite has numerous physical properties. The color is usually a dead give away of the mineral. It is most commonly found in either a clear or white color. However, it may be blue, yellow, gray, pink or purple (Schumann, 1992). It possesses perfect cleavage in three directions forming 90 degree angles (Chesterman and Lowe, 1995). This is what gives the mineral a cube-like appearance. It has a conchoidal fracture and a vitreous luster. The hardness of the mineral is 2 on the hardness scale (www.rocksandminerals.com). It streaks white. Its specific gravity is 2.1, which is considered very light (www.mineral.galleries.com). The boiling point for halite is 1,413 degrees Celsius, while its melting point is much lower at 800 degrees Celsius (www.rocksandminerlas.com). Minerals that are isostructural with halite include galena, alabandite, periclase, and chlorargyrite (Perkins, 2002). The chemical make up of halite is felt through its taste. Halite is sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) that come together to make salt. Salt is about 39.337% sodium and 60.663% elemental chloride (www.rocksandminerals.com).

Halite, or salt, is found in many places around the world. Sea water contains about 2.6% NaCl and is a big source for salt extraction (www.rocksandminerals.com). Halite is found in many evaporate deposits such as near Searles Lake, California and Salt Lake City, Utah. Several United States cities such as Cleveland and Detroit sit on massive halite deposits that are mined for industrial purposes (www.mineral.galleries.com). Germany and Austria have huge halite deposits as well (Chesterman and Lowe, 1995). Halite is even found in large quantities in Kansas, Lyons and Hutchinson, which are well known for mining halite.

Halite has found many uses in our world as we know it. In fact, our own bodies would not function right with out the mineral halite. As an essential nutrient, vital to all animals of the world. Since our own bodies cannot manufacture sodium and chloride naturally, halite is the supplement for humans (www.rockandminerals.com).

Halite is used in mass quantities for the production of paper. The byproduct of halite is chlorine and caustic soda which is used in the paper making process. A primary use for halite in developed countries that have inclement conditions is for melting ice. Road safety is vastly improved when halite is applied on ice, since halite is a natural de-icer (www.minerals.net). When we use water softeners halite is most often involved. Halite replaces calcium in the water with sodium, which makes the water softer. The industrial realm also uses halite in many ways. It is used to fix and standardize dye batches for textile industries. Halite is also used in many rubber factories to help separate rubber from latex (www.rockandminerals.com).

Halite, better know as sodium chloride or salt, has been involved with almost every form of anthropogenic and biological life on the earth. With out this vital mineral our own bodies would simply not function. We owe our way of life to halite and many other minerals of the world!

“ Of all bauxite mined, approximately 85% is converted to alumina (Al2O3) for the production of aluminum metal, an additional 10% goes to nonmetal uses as various forms of specialty alumina, and the remaining 5% is used for nonmetallurgical bauxite applications” (Plunkert, 2000). The bulk of world bauxite production is, therefore, used as feed for the manufacture of alumina. “On a world-wide average 4 to 5 tons of bauxite are needed to produce two tons of alumina, from which one ton of aluminum can be produced” (Azom, 2004).

The world-aluminum website tells us bauxite is found in four types of deposit: blanket, pocket, interlayered and detrital. The major bauxite deposits of the world are found in the tropics and in the Caribbean and Mediterranean regions. Today most bauxite mining locations are in the Caribbean area, South America, Australia, and Africa (The International Aluminum Institute, 2000).

Porterfield (2002) reports that the only place in the continental US where it has been economically feasible to commercially mine bauxite ore is near Bauxite, AR. Mining began in 1899 and increased each year, peaking during the WWII years when the need was greatest because German Submarines were sinking the ore ships from Suriname. Alcoa developed and built a Bayer - Sinter plant for processing the bauxite ore into aluminum oxide. The high grade, low silica content bauxite ore is no longer available and the low- grade ore is not economically feasible to process. All the mining and refining plants in Bauxite, AR have been shut down. Alcoa still has a chemical plant there, using shipped in alumina from other refineries (Porterfield, 2002).

Bauxite ranges in color from off-white to deep reddish brown and structurally from soft, earthy material to a well-cemented rock. Many bauxite deposits have an oolitic to pisolitic texture.

Aluminum is silvery white, has a low specific gravity of 2.69, and a low melting temperature. Two reasons for aluminum's versatility are its light- weight, and its strength when alloyed with other metals. Aluminum is easily cast, machined, rolled, forged, extruded, and drawn. Aluminum is efficiently recycled, as the aluminum from used products requires only 5% as much energy as extracting aluminum from bauxite. Major uses of aluminum are aluminum paint, beverage cans, baseball bats, power lines, house siding, boats, and airplanes.

Calcite has several different colors that range from white to pale shades of grey, yellow to red, green to blue, and brown to black when impure. On Mohs Hardness scale calcite is three (3) and the specific gravity is 2.7. The cleavage is perfect in three directions, forming a rhombohedron and it fracture is conchoidal. Calcite is transparent to translucent and can be fluorescent (Chesterman, 1979). The crystal system for calcite is trigonal and crystal class is bar 3 2/m (Amethyst Galleries Inc, 1996). Another interesting property of calcite is its high birefringence. If a calcite crystal was held over an object or a piece of paper with words on it, the object or words will be doubled. This is caused when a ray of light enters the crystal and splits into two rays, which are slowed at differing rates and thus, traveling at different speeds. When they leave the crystal the beams are bent into two different angles (Amethyst Galleries Inc, 1996).

There are several types of calcite but there are a few that stand out more than others are Dogtooth Spar, Mexican onyx and Iceland Spar. The most common form of calcite is the Dogtooth Spar. It is the most well known of the calcite varieties because of its shape which resembles the canine tooth of a dog. This type of calcite came from places such as Ohio and Tennessee, in USA and England in UK. Mexican onyx, not onyx at all, is a variety of calcite that is used for ornamental purposes. Iceland Spar is another variety that is common among calcite. It is clear fragments of completely colorless calcite. This variety was first found in Iceland in basalt cavities. Most of the Iceland spar that is sold today comes from Mexico (Amethyst Galleries Inc, 1996).

There are several uses for calcite. The most important use is in mineral collections because of the varieties found and the varieties of color that calcite can have. Some people use calcite for healing reasons. Calcite can be an aid to perception, meaning that it will help to see things more clearly and to see reality in a different way. It is also used as a calming stone, which allows a person to look at there life and see if some aspect are in need of change. It has also been said that calcite can be an aid to memory and meditation (EarthBow, 2001). Some of the industrial uses of calcite include the food industry, paper industry, and paint industry, plastic industry which would include things such as PVC pipes, panels and cables. It is also used in adhesives and tooth pastes, in carpets and oilcloths (Hisar).

“The finest Vanadinite is from Mibladen, Morocco, where it occurs as blood-red hexagonal plates and “barrels”. Beautiful crystals also come from Touisset, Morocco; Tsumeb, Namibia; Broken Hill, Zambia; and Cordoba, Argentina. The only significant occurrences of Vanadinite in the U.S. are in the arid southwest. Localities in Arizona include the Apache Mine, Globe district, Gila County; the Hamburg Mine, Yuma County; the Mammoth Mine, Tiger, Pinal County; and the Old Yuma Mine, Pima County” (Friedman, 2000).

Vanadinite is an important ore of vanadium. Vanadium is used in several industrial applications. “Vanadium is used extensively to make alloys for tools and construction purposes. Vanadium is alloyed with iron to make carbon steel, high- strength low-alloy steel, full alloy steel, and tool steel. These hard, ferrovanadium alloys are used to make armour plating for military vehicles and other protective vehicles. It is also used to make car engine parts that must be very strong, such as piston rods and crank shafts. The steel “skeleton' or frames of high-rise buildings and oil drilling platforms must be very strong to support the weight of the building and its contents; vanadium steel has the strength to support such massive weight” (Mineral Information Institute, 2004). Compounds of Vanadium are also used as a mordant in fabric dyeing.